INTRODUCTION
We certainly know that our universe exists, however, this knowledge alone has not satisfied mankind's quest for further understanding. Our curiosity has led us to question our place in this universe and furthermore, the place of the universe itself. Throughout time we have asked ourselves these questions: How did our universe begin? How old is our universe? How did matter come to exist? Obviously, these are not simple quesPublish Posttions and throughout our brief history on this planet much time and effort has been spent looking for some clue. Yet, after all this energy has been expended, much of what we know is still only speculation.
We have, however, come a long way from the mystical beginnings of the study of cosmology and the origins of the universe. Through the understandings of modern science we have been able to provide firm theories for some of the answers we once called hypotheses. True to the nature of science, a majority of these answers have only led to more intriguing and complex questions. It seems to be inherent in our search for knowledge that questions will always continue to exist.
Although in this short chapter it will be impossible to tackle all of the questions concerning the creation of everything we know as reality, an attempt will be made to address certain fundamental questions of our being. It will be important to keep in mind that all of this information is constantly being questioned and reevaluated in order to understand the universe more clearly. For our purposes, through an examination of what is known about the Big Bang itself, the age of the universe, and the synthesis of the first atoms, we believe that we can begin to answer several of these key questions.
THE BIG BANG
One of the most persistently asked questions has been: How was the universe created? Many once believed that the universe had no beginning or end and was truly infinite. Through the inception of the Big Bang theory, however,no longer could the universe be considered infinite. The universe was forced to take on the properties of a finite phenomenon, possessing a history and a beginning.
About 15 billion years ago a tremendous explosion started the expansion of the universe. This explosion is known as the Big Bang. At the point of this event all of the matter and energy of space was contained at one point. What exisisted prior to this event is completely unknown and is a matter of pure speculation. This occurance was not a conventional explosion but rather an event filling all of space with all of the particles of the embryonic universe rushing away from each other. The Big Bang actually consisted of an explosion of space within itself unlike an explosion of a bomb were fragments are thrown outward. The galaxies were not all clumped together, but rather the Big Bang lay the foundations for the universe.
The origin of the Big Bang theory can be credited to Edwin Hubble. Hubble made the observation that the universe is continuously expanding. He discovered that a galaxys velocity is proportional to its distance. Galaxies that are twice as far from us move twice as fast. Another consequence is that the universe is expanding in every direction. This observation means that it has taken every galaxy the same amount of time to move from a common starting position to its current position. Just as the Big Bang provided for the foundation of the universe, Hubbles observations provided for the foundation of the Big Bang theory.
Since the Big Bang, the universe has been continuously expanding and, thus, there has been more and more distance between clusters of galaxies. This phenomenon of galaxies moving farther away from each other is known as the red shift. As light from distant galaxies approach earth there is an increase of space between earth and the galaxy, which leads to wavelengths being stretched.
In addition to the understanding of the velocity of galaxies emanating from a single point, there is further evidence for the Big Bang. In 1964, two astronomers, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, in an attempt to detect microwaves from outer space, inadvertently discovered a noise of extraterrestrial origin. The noise did not seem to emanate from one location but instead, it came from all directions at once. It became obvious that what they heard was radiation from the farthest reaches of the universe which had been left over from the Big Bang. This discovery of the radioactive aftermath of the initial explosion lent much credence to the Big Bang theory.
Even more recently, NASAs COBE satellite was able to detect cosmic microwaves eminating from the outer reaches of the universe. These microwaves were remarkably uniform which illustrated the homogenity of the early stages of the universe. However, the satillite also discovered that as the universe began to cool and was still expanding, small fluctuations began to exist due to temperature differences. These flucuatuations verified prior calculations of the possible cooling and development of the universe just fractions of a second after its creation. These fluctuations in the universe provided a more detailed description of the first moments after the Big Bang. They also helped to tell the story of the formation of galaxies which will be discussed in the next chapter.
The Big Bang theory provides a viable solution to one of the most pressing questions of all time. It is important to understand, however, that the theory itself is constantly being revised. As more observations are made and more research conducted, the Big Bang theory becomes more complete and our knowledge of the origins of the universe more substantial.
THE FIRST ATOMS
Now that an attempt has been made to grapple with the theory of the Big Bang, the next logical question to ask would be what happened afterward? In the minuscule fractions of the first second after creation what was once a complete vacuum began to evolve into what we now know as the universe. In the very beginning there was nothing except for a plasma soup. What is known of these brief moments in time, at the start of our study of cosmology, is largely conjectural. However, science has devised some sketch of what probably happened, based on what is known about the universe today.
Immediately after the Big Bang, as one might imagine, the universe was tremendously hot as a result of particles of both matter and antimatter rushing apart in all directions. As it began to cool, at around 10^-43 seconds after creation, there existed an almost equal yet asymmetrical amount of matter and antimatter. As these two materials are created together, they collide and destroy one another creating pure energy. Fortunately for us, there was an asymmetry in favor of matter. As a direct result of an excess of about one part per billion, the universe was able to mature in a way favorable for matter to persist. As the universe first began to expand, this discrepancy grew larger. The particles which began to dominate were those of matter. They were created and they decayed without the accompaniment of an equal creation or decay of an antiparticle.
As the universe expanded further, and thus cooled, common particles began to form. These particles are called baryons and include photons, neutrinos, electrons and quarks would become the building blocks of matter and life as we know it. During the baryon genesis period there were no recognizable heavy particles such as protons or neutrons because of the still intense heat. At this moment, there was only a quark soup. As the universe began to cool and expand even more, we begin to understand more clearly what exactly happened.
After the universe had cooled to about 3000 billion degrees Kelvin, a radical transition began which has been likened to the phase transition of water turning to ice. Composite particles such as protons and neutrons, called hadrons, became the common state of matter after this transition. Still, no matter more complex could form at these temperatures. Although lighter particles, called leptons, also existed, they were prohibited from reacting with the hadrons to form more complex states of matter. These leptons, which include electrons, neutrinos and photons, would soon be able to join their hadron kin in a union that would define present-day common matter.
After about one to three minutes had passed since the creation of the universe, protons and neutrons began to react with each other to form deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen. Deuterium, or heavy hydrogen, soon collected another neutron to form tritium. Rapidly following this reaction was the addition of another proton which produced a helium nucleus. Scientists believe that there was one helium nucleus for every ten protons within the first three minutes of the universe. After further cooling, these excess protons would be able to capture an electron to create common hydrogen. Consequently, the universe today is observed to contain one helium atom for every ten or eleven atoms of hydrogen.
While it is true that much of this information is speculative, as the universe ages we are able to become increasingly confident in our knowledge of its history. By studying the way in which the universe exists today it is possible to learn a great deal about its past. Much effort has gone into understanding the formation and number of baryons present today. Through finding answers to these modern questions, it is possible to trace their role in the universe back to the Big Bang. Subsequently, by studying the formation of simple atoms in the laboratory we can make some educated guesses as to how they formed originally. Only through further research and discovery will it be possible to completely understand the creation of the universe and its first atomic structures, however, maybe we will never know for sure.
AGE OF THE UNIVERSE
We now have something of a handle on two of the most important quandaries concerning the universe; however, one major question remains. If the universe is indeed finite, how long has it been in existence? Again, science has been able to expand upon what it knows about the universe today and extrapolate a theory as to its age. By applying the common physical equation of distance over velocity equaling time, which again uses Hubbles observations, a fairly accurate approximation can be made.
The two primary measurements needed are the distance of a galaxy moving away from us and that galaxys red shift. An unsuccessful first attempt was made to find these distances through trigonometry. Scientists were able to calculate the diameter of the Earths orbit around the sun which was augmented through the calculation of the Suns motion through our own galaxy. Unfortunately, this calculation could not be used alone to determine the enormous distance between our galaxy and those which would enable us to estimate the age of the universe because of the significant errors involved.
The next step was an understanding of the pulsation of stars. It had been observed that stars of the same luminosity blinked at the same rate, much like a lighthouse could work where all lighthouses with 150,000 watt light bulbs would rotate every thirty seconds and those with 250,000 watt light bulbs would rotate every minute. With this knowledge, scientists assumed that stars in our galaxy that blinked at the same rate as stars in distant galaxies must have the same intensity. Using trigonometry, they were able to calculate the distance to the star in our galaxy. Therefore, the distance of the distant star could be calculated by studying the difference in their intensities much like determining the distance of two cars in the night. Assuming the two cars headights had the same intensity, it would be possible to infer that the car whose headlights appeared dimmer was farther away from the observer than the other car whose headlights would seem brighter. Again, this theory could not be used alone to calculate distance of the most far-away galaxies. After a certain distance it becomes impossible to distinguish individual stars from the galaxies in which they exist. Because of the large red shifts in these galaxies a method had to be devised to find distance using entire galaxy clusters rather than stars alone.
By studying the sizes of galaxy cluster that are near to us, scientists can gain an idea of what the sizes of other clusters might be. Consequently, a prediction can be made about their distance from the Milky Way much in the same way the distance of stars was learned. Though a calculation involving the supposed distance of the far-off cluster and its red shift, a final estimation can be made as to how long the galaxy has been moving away from us. In turn, this number can be used inversely to turn back the clock to a point when the two galaxies were in the same place at the same time, or, the moment of the Big Bang. The equation generally used to show the age of the universe is shown here:
(distance of a particular galaxy) / (that galaxys velocity) = (time)
or
4.6 x 10^26 cm / 1 x 10^9 cm/sec = 4.6 x 10^17 sec
This equation, equaling 4.6 x 10^17 seconds, comes out to be approximately fifteen billion years. This calculation is almost exactly the same for every galaxy that can be studied. However, because of the uncertainties of the measurements produced by these equations, only a rough estimate of the true age of the universe can be fashioned. While finding the age of the universe is a complicated process, the achievement of this knowledge represents a critical step in our understanding.
NOW WHAT?
In summary, we have made a first attempt at explaining the answers that science has revealed about our universe. Our understanding of the Big Bang, the first atoms and the age of the universe is obviously incomplete. As time wears on, more discoveries are made, leading to infinite questions which require yet more answers. Unsatisfied with our base of knowledge research is being conducted around the world at this very moment to further our minimal understanding of the unimaginably complex universe.
Since its conception, the theory of the Big Bang has been constantly challenged. These challenges have led those who believe in the theory to search for more concrete evidence which would prove them correct. From the point at which this chapter leaves off, many have tried to go further and several discoveries have been made that paint a more complete picture of the creation of the universe.
Recently, NASA has made some astounding discoveries which lend themselves to the proof of the Big Bang theory. Most importantly, astronomers using the Astro-2 observatory were able to confirm one of the requirements for the foundation of the universe through the Big Bang. In June, 1995, scientists were able to detect primordial helium, such as deuterium, in the far reaches of the universe. These findings are consistent with an important aspect of the Big Bang theory that a mixture of hydrogen and helium was created at the beginning of the universe.
In addition, the Hubble telescope, named after the father of Big Bang theory, has provided certain clues as to what elements were present following creation. Astronomers using Hubble have found the element boron in extremely ancient stars. They postulate that its presence could be either a remnant of energetic events at the birth of galaxies or it could indicate that boron is even older, dating back to the Big Bang itself. If the latter is true, scientists will be forced once again to modify their theory for the birth of the universe and events immediately afterward because, according to the present theory, such a heavy and complex atom could not have existed.
In this manner we can see that the research will never be truly complete. Our hunger for knowledge will never be satiated. So to answer the question, what now, is an impossibility. The path we take from here will only be determined by our own discoveries and questions. We are engaged in a never-ending cycle of questions and answers where one will inevitably lead to the other.
Sunday, April 6, 2008
Saturday, April 5, 2008
Universe Age Calculation
This Universe Age Calculation is given by Swami Dayananda Saraswati as per Veda's Text. Universe Age as given in Veda's Text is almost equal to Universe Age Calculation by Bigbang Theory.
Universe Age Calculation by Veda's Text:
calculation of age of universe as given veda's Text which is almost equal to the universe age calculation by Big Bang Theory.
1. Age of Brahma 100 Years
2. 1 Brahma Years = 12 Brahna Month
3. 1 Brahma Month=30 Brahma Days + 30 Brahama Night
4. One Brahma Day = 1 Brahma Night = 1 Kalpa
5. 1 kalpa= 1000 Four Yugas=14 manvantaras
6. one Four Yuga=43,20.000 Earth Years
a. Kaliyuga= 432000 earth Years
b. Dvapara-yuga= 2*Age of Kaliyuga=2*432000=864000
c. Treta-yuga=3*Age of Kaliyuga=3*432000=1296000
d. Satya-Yuga=4*Age of Kaliyuga=4*432000=1728000
Hence total age of four yuga=4320000 of earth Years as per Veda's text the current of age of brahma=50Brahama Years + 6 Manvantaras + 27 four Yugas + 1 Satyuga + 1 Treti + 1 Dvapara + 5000 Years of Kaliyuga that's almost equal to 155.522*10 to power 22 or 155.522 trillion that's almost equal to the result by big bang theory of universe.
Other Calculations:
In 1929, Edwin Hubble decided that because the light coming from most galaxies was redshifted, the universe must be expanding after exploding from an infinitesimal volume of superhot, superdense concentration of matter and energy. The explosion is called the big bang which propelled matter in all directions and at all speeds. According to the big bang theory, the farther away an object is from us, the more redshifted its light. Also, a greater redshift means the object is moving away faster than objects with less redshift. If the universe is not expanding, this cannot be true and the redshift must be due to other causes. An astronomer can tell how old the universe is by the rate of expansion. If the redshift is due to something other than expansion, nothing can be said about the universe's age.
Evolutionary astronomers confidently argue the universe is 12-20 billion years old, although there is no certainty about any astronomical observations. John Eddy, a famous astronomer, once said that there isn't much in the way of observational astronomy that proves the universe is old.Universe Age Calculation by Veda's Text:
calculation of age of universe as given veda's Text which is almost equal to the universe age calculation by Big Bang Theory.
1. Age of Brahma 100 Years
2. 1 Brahma Years = 12 Brahna Month
3. 1 Brahma Month=30 Brahma Days + 30 Brahama Night
4. One Brahma Day = 1 Brahma Night = 1 Kalpa
5. 1 kalpa= 1000 Four Yugas=14 manvantaras
6. one Four Yuga=43,20.000 Earth Years
a. Kaliyuga= 432000 earth Years
b. Dvapara-yuga= 2*Age of Kaliyuga=2*432000=864000
c. Treta-yuga=3*Age of Kaliyuga=3*432000=1296000
d. Satya-Yuga=4*Age of Kaliyuga=4*432000=1728000
Hence total age of four yuga=4320000 of earth Years as per Veda's text the current of age of brahma=50Brahama Years + 6 Manvantaras + 27 four Yugas + 1 Satyuga + 1 Treti + 1 Dvapara + 5000 Years of Kaliyuga that's almost equal to 155.522*10 to power 22 or 155.522 trillion that's almost equal to the result by big bang theory of universe.
Other Calculations:
- 1 year of the Deva = 360 human years.
Krita Yuga (Satya) = 4,000 Daiva years or (4,000 x 360) = 1,440,000
Twilight preceding = 400 Daiva years or (400 x 360 yrs) = ….14, 400.
Twilight following = Ditto………………………………=…...14,400
………………………………….Duration of Krita Yuga = 1,728,000
Treta Yuga……….= 3,000 Daiva years or (3000 x 360).. = 1,080,000
Twilight preceding= 300 ….Daiva years or (300 x 360)…=…108,000
Twilight following= 300…………Ditto………………......=...108,000
…………………………………..Duration of Treta Yuga =.1,296,000
Dvapara Yuga…..= 2,000 Daiva years or (2000 x 360).…= ...720,000
Twilight preceding= ..200 Daiva years or (200 x 360)…...=…..72,000
Twilight following=.…………….Ditto……………..……= …72,000
……………………………….Duration of Dvapara Yuga =...864,000
Kaliyuga…………= 1000 Daiva years or (1000 x 360)….=...360,000
Twilight preceding= 100. Daiva years or ...(100 x 360)….=…..36,000
Twilight following=……………….Ditto………………...= ….l36,000
………………………………...Duration of Kali Yuga…..=….432,000
…………………………………Total of four Yugas……..= .4,320,000
- 1 Manvantara… = 71 four-Yugas or 4,320,000 x 71) = ….306,720,000
14 Manvantaras = 306,720,000 x 14 (a day of Brahma) = 4,294,080,000
To this must be added 15 twilights i.e., one at the
beginning of each Manvantara and one at the end
of the last Manvantaras, and as eachTwilight is equal
to a Krita Yuga, we should add
15 x 1,728,000 years……………………………………..= 25, 920,000
Total duration of a day of Brahma…………………...= 4,320,000,000
Fifteen twilights = 1,728,000 x 15 ………………….=…..25,920,000
Six four-Yugas..= 4,320,000 x 8 …………………...=…..25,920,000
15 twilights of Manvantaras are equal to 6 four-Yugas.
A day of Brahma consists of 1000 four-Yugas because 71 x 14 = 994. to this if we add the 6 four-Yugas - the duration of fifteen twilights, we get 1000 Chaturyugas.
Age of creation
Q. - How many years have elapsed since the revelation of the Vedas?
A. ~ 1,960,852,976 years and the current year is the 1,960,852,977th. The same number of years has elapsed since the creation in the present Kalpa.
Q. - How do you know that only so many years have elapsed and not more.?
A. ~ Because in the present creation it is the seventh manvantra called vaivasvata which is now running, six manvantaras having run their course before it. The names of these seven manvantaras are Svayambhava, Svarochisha, Auttanmi, Tamasa, Raivata, Chakshusha And Vaivasvata. These together with the seven, the savarni, etc., that are yet to come, make fourteen manvantaras.
The length of a Manavantara is 71 Chaturyugis (4 yugas). One thousand Chaturyugis have to run their course to make a day of Brahma. The duration of the night of Brahma also is the same. The time during which a cosmos lasts is called the day and the time occupied by dissolution is named the night.
In the present day of Brahma six manvantaras have already rolled by the and the 28th Kaliyuga is running in the 7th ilel, the present manvantara called Vaivasvata. Of this Kaliyuga also 4796 years have already passed and the present year is the 4797th, which the Aryas call the Samvat 1933 (1876 A.D.) of King Vikrama's reign. We quote Manu in our report,
'But hear now the brief description of the duration of a night and day of Brahma and of the several ages (of the world) according to their order.
'They declare that the Krita age (consists of ) 4,000 years (of the Devas): the twilight preceding it consists of as many hundreds and the twilight following it of the same number.
' In the other three ages (the Treta, the Dvapara, and the Kali) wit their preceding and following twilights, the thousands and the hundreds are diminished by one in each.
'These 12,000 years which thus have been just enumerated as the total of 4 (human) ages are called one age of the Devas.
"But know that the sum of 1,000 years of the Devas makes one day of Brahma and that his night has the same length.
'Those only who know that he holy day of Brahma indeed ends after the completion of 1,000 ages of the Devas and that his night lasts
as long, are really men acquainted with the length of days and nights.
' the before-mentioned age of the Devas or 12,000 (of their years) being multiplied by 71 (constitutes what) is here named the period of a Manu-Manavantara.'
the Manvantaras, the creations and the destructions (of the world) are numberless.
sportings, as it were, of Parameshthin (God) who repeats this again and again!
The terms, 'Day of Brahma, Night of Brahma, etc.,' being of easy comprehension have been adopted for measuring time, so that it may be easy to calculate the age of the creation and the dissolution of the world and also of the Vedic revelation. A Manvantara is so called because on the change of amanvantara some modifications occur in the external arrangements of creation. The system of numeration to be followed in counting the years should be the following, as given in the Surya Siddhanata viz.,
'Eka = 1, dasha = 10, shata = 100, sahasra = 1,000, ayuta = 10,000, laksha = 100,000, niyuta = 1,000,000, koti = 10,000,000, arbuda = 100,000,000, vrinda = 1,000,000,000, kharva = 10,000,000, 000,
nikharva = 100,000,000,000, Shankha - 1,000,000,0000, 000, padma = 10, 000, 000, 000, 000, sagara = 100,000,000,000,000, antya = 1,000,000,000,000,000, Madhya = 10,000,000,000,000,000, parardhya = 100,000,000,000,000,000,, and so on multiplying by 10 in succession.
According to the Shatpatha 7:5, 2, 13. the word "Sahasra' means "Sarva' (all). It says: 'Sahasra' means Sarva; thou art the giver of 'Sarva', and the Yajurveda 15:65 says: O God thou art the measurer of Sahasra, the reckoner of Sahasra.' Thus 'Sarva' means the universe as well as time because this Mantra occurs, in a general sense and its meaning is that God is the measurer of the universe, 'Brahmanda' whose periods of
existence and dissolution, (technically called) Day and Night, consist of 1000, Mahayugas (aeons) each.
Works astronomical science lay down daily observances. The Aryas have clearly reckon even to-day, according to the rules of arithmetic, the divisions of time from a Kshana (= 4/5ths of a second) up to the Kalpa and the Kalpana and they pronounce them daily and are familiar with them.
All men, should, therefore, accept this firmly established doctrine (of the age of the world and the Vedic revelation). They should accept none else. It has been embodied in formula which is as follows: Om tat sat! I did this in the second quarter of the day of Brahma, in the first quarter of the 28th Kaliyuga of Vaivasavata Manvantra, in such and such year, Solstice, season, month and fortnight (Paksha), on such and such day when the moon occupies or occupied such and such mansion NAJYATR zodiacal sign and at such
an hour.* This formula is a matter of everyday knowledge to every Arya, young or old, and it is prevalent in the whole of Aryavarta in an identical form. It is, therefore, not possible for any man to disturb it.
We shall explain the Yugas further at a later stage, qui vid.
From these observations it is evident that the opinion of European Profs. Max Muller, Wilson, etc., that the Vedas are of human and not of divine origin, as well as, their verdict that the Vedas were compose 2,400, 2,900, 3,000 or 3,100 years ago is rooted in error. The like views of those writers, who have written Vedic commentaries in the vernaculars ar also erroneous.
*I think it is advisable to give here the duration of the day of Brahma according to the calculation of Manu.
- 1 year of the Deva = 360 human years.
Krita Yuga (Satya) = 4,000 Daiva years or (4,000 x 360) = 1,440,000
Twilight preceding = 400 Daiva years or (400 x 360 yrs) = ….14, 400.
Twilight following = Ditto………………………………=…...14,400
………………………………….Duration of Krita Yuga = 1,728,000
Treta Yuga……….= 3,000 Daiva years or (3000 x 360).. = 1,080,000
Twilight preceding= 300 ….Daiva years or (300 x 360)…=…108,000
Twilight following= 300…………Ditto………………......=...108,000
…………………………………..Duration of Treta Yuga =.1,296,000
Dvapara Yuga…..= 2,000 Daiva years or (2000 x 360).…= ...720,000
Twilight preceding= ..200 Daiva years or (200 x 360)…...=…..72,000
Twilight following=.…………….Ditto……………..……= …72,000
……………………………….Duration of Dvapara Yuga =...864,000
Kaliyuga…………= 1000 Daiva years or (1000 x 360)….=...360,000
Twilight preceding= 100. Daiva years or ...(100 x 360)….=…..36,000
Twilight following=……………….Ditto………………...= ….l36,000
………………………………...Duration of Kali Yuga…..=….432,000
…………………………………Total of four Yugas……..= .4,320,000
- 1 Manvantara… = 71 four-Yugas or 4,320,000 x 71) = ….306,720,000
14 Manvantaras = 306,720,000 x 14 (a day of Brahma) = 4,294,080,000
To this must be added 15 twilights i.e., one at the
beginning of each Manvantara and one at the end
of the last Manvantaras, and as eachTwilight is equal
to a Krita Yuga, we should add
15 x 1,728,000 years……………………………………..= 25, 920,000
Total duration of a day of Brahma…………………...= 4,320,000,000
Fifteen twilights = 1,728,000 x 15 ………………….=…..25,920,000
Six four-Yugas..= 4,320,000 x 8 …………………...=…..25,920,000
15 twilights of Manvantaras are equal to 6 four-Yugas.
A day of Brahma consists of 1000 four-Yugas because 71 x 14 = 994. to this if we add the 6 four-Yugas - the duration of fifteen twilights, we get 1000 Chaturyugas.
THE ORIGIN OF THE VEDAS.
THE ORIGIN OF THE VEDAS.
The Rigveda, the YajurVeda, the Samaveda and the Atharveda were produced by the
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Supreme and perfect Being, Parabrahman, who possesses the attributes of self-existence, consciousness and bliss, who is Omnipotent and universally adored. The meaning is that the four Vedas were revealed by God alone.
[The word 'sarvahuta' can also be taken as an adjective qualifying the Vedas because they also are worthy of acceptance to all].
"(Tasmat) from (sarvahutah) the universally adored Being the (Yajna) Vishnu - the all-pervading were produced the Riks and the Samans. (Tasmat) from Him (jajnire) were produced (Chhandansi) the Atharvaveda (tasmat) from Him (ajayata) was produced (Yajus) the Yajurveda (Tr) The Yajur Veda.
In the mantra the verbs 'Jagnire' and 'Ajayata' both meaning 'produced' are used to show that the Vedas contain numerous sciences. *
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Similarly the pronoun 'tasmat' (from him) is used twice for the purpose of laying stress on the fact that God alone is the author of the Vedas.
The Vedas contain various meters - Gayatri, etc., but notwithstanding this, the word chhandansi meters - is used to indicate that the Atharvaveda also was revealed by God.
The word 'Yajna' means 'Vishnu' according to Shatapatha I:1:1. (Yasho vai Vishnu) where it is said 'verily Vishnu is Yajna.' Now Vishnu means God. See Yajurveda V:15 (Edam Vishnu virchakrame tredadhe padam). The attribute of creating the universe can be applicable to God alone.
[He is called Vishnu because He pervades the animate and the inanimate world].
Tell me who is that Divine Being, the Almighty and Supreme Brahman by whom was produced the Rigveda, by whom was brought to light the Yajurveda and by whom were made the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda; or metaphorically,
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who is He whose mouth - the foremost par - is the Atharvaveda; the hair, the Samaveda; the heart, the Yajurveda and the breath, the Rigveda? This a question. The answer to it is: know thou that that Being is the Skambha - the all sustaining God.
The meaning is that no other Deva than the all-sustaining God is the author of the Vedas. Yajnavalkya addressing Maitreyi! The four Vedas - Rik and others - came out of God who transcends even space easily and naturally like the breath. As the breath comes out of the body and is again taken into it, so the Vedas revealed by God and are again withdrawn (at the time of dissolution).
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Some might here object; How could the Vedas, consisting as they do of words, be produced by God who has no bodily organs? Our reply to this is that such an objection can not raise in connection with the Almighty.
He has always the power of acting without the help of such instruments as the mouth, the breath, etc. Besides this, as at the time of thinking we pronounce words, ask and answer questions mentally so we may believe that the same is true of God also. Verily the almighty can never require the help of any body or thing in His work.
It is true, we cannot do anything without aids and helps, but such is not the case with God. When the incorporeal God has fashioned the entire cosmos what objection can possibly be raised to his having made the Vedas? God had created extremely wonderful objects in the world, whose composition is as fine as that of the Vedas.
(The objector may retort that the analogy is not true) because in the case of the creation of the world no one except God could have done it, but in the case of the composition of the Vedas men might have had the power to compose.
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Them just as they got the power to write other books. As to this we have to ob serve that men have been able to write books after studying the Vedas of Divine authorship and not otherwise. Even now we see that no one can become learned without self-study and receiving instruction from others.
Men acquire knowledge by reading books, receiving oral instruction from others and observing the course of events. Suppose you were able to keep a human child up to his death in a lonely place, taking care, of course, to provide him with food, drink, etc., but never holding the slightest intercourse with him by means of speech, etc. Now as that child would not acquire the smallest knowledge worth the name and as the wild dwellers of the great forests behave like beasts until they receive instruction others, so men too, would have continued to behave like beasts from the beginning of creation to the present day if they had not received instruction through the Vedas. What to say then of their composing books?
The objector might further say that our position was untenable because God has given man innate knowledge which was superior to
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all book-learning and without which even the knowledge of the revelation of Vedic words and their meanings would have been impossible to acquire. Men would write books by improving that knowledge and it was not necessary to believe in the Divine authorship of the Vedas.
Having arrived at this point we ask:-
Did not God give this innate knowledge to the child who was kept in a solitary place without receiving any instruction, as described above, or to the dwellers of the great forests?
Also how is it that we do not become learned with out receiving instruction from others and without studying the Vedas? It is, therefore, proved that mere innate knowledge is of little avail to man without instruction and study.
As men write books after learning many things from their teachers and by studying the works of the learned and by associating with them so all men have ultimately to depend on Divine knowledge.
Now, in the beginning of creation there was no system to teaching and learning, nor was there any book to read; consequently, it was not possible for any man to have acquired knowledge without receiving instructions
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from God. Men not being independent in the matter of empirical knowledge and innate knowledge alone being insufficient for the acquisition of knowledge in general, how could men have written books (without extraneous help)?
The position that innate knowledge is self-sufficient is absurd, because like the eye it falls under the category of instruments. As the eye is unable to do anything without the co-operation of the mind so innate knowledge also cannot accomplish anything without the help of Divine knowledge and the learning of learned men.
The question, 'what was God's object in revealing the Vedas - should be met by the counter question, 'what could be His object in not revealing them? To this the objector can only say: 'No one know how to answer this question.' We shall now describe God's object in revealing the Vedas.
Q. - Is God's knowledge infinite or is it not?
>A. ~ It is.
Q. - Of what use is it to Him?
A. ~ It is for His own benefit.
Q. - But, does not God do good to others?
A. ~ He does, but what of that?
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This shows that knowledge has for its object the interests of self as well as of others. If God were not to employ His knowledge for our instruction it would become useless in one respect. By employing His knowledge in the shape of the Vedas for the instructional purposes He only rendered it useful for others.
God is most merciful like a father. As a father always show kindness to his children so did God in His great mercy reveal the Vedas for the benefit of all men. If He had done so gross ignorance would have been perpetuated and men could not have achieved righteousness, worldly prosperity, enjoyment and emancipation and would have been deprived of the highest bliss.
When the most merciful God created bulbous roots, fruits and herbs, etc., for the good of His creatures, why should He not have revealed the Vedic knowledge which brings to light all kinds of happiness and contains all sciences.
The pleasure one experiences in enjoying the best things of the world does not equal the one thousandth part of the pleasure one feels after acquiring knowledge.
It is, therefore, certain that the Vedas were revealed by God.
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Q. - Whence did God get the writing materials such as a pen, ink, paper, etc., for writing the books of the Vedas?
A. ~ Ha! Ha! This is, indeed, a formidable objection, you have made. As God created the world without the help of bodily organs, the hands, the feet, etc., and without the aid of such materials as wood, clay, etc., so He made the Vedas also. You do not raise such a doubt in connection with the composition of the Vedas by God Almighty. He did not, however, produce the Vedas in the form of books in the beginning.
Q. - In what form then (did He produce them)?
A. ~ He revealed them to the consciousness of Agni, Vayu, Aditya and Angirasa.
Q.- But they (fire, air, sun, light) are inanimate objects devoid of consciousness?
A. ~ No, they were human beings in human bodies in the beginning of creation. No inanimate object can be capable of doing an intellectual act. When it is not possible to
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take word in its literal sense, it is taken in its indirect or secondary sense, e.g., if a trustworthy gentleman were to tell another that the bedsteads were shouting then others would understand that men sitting on the bedsteads were shouting.
The same course should be adopted here also (i.e., in taking Agni, Vayu, Aditya and Angirasa as names of human beings and not as names of inanimate objects, fire, air, sun and light); for, the light of knowledge can shine in man alone. On this point there is the authority of the Shatapatha XI. 5-8-3 where it is said that from them, when they meditated, were produced the three Vedas, viz., from Agni was produced the Rigveda, from Vayu, the Yajurveda, and from Surya the Samaveda. God inspired their consciousness and produced the Vedas through them.
Q.- That's all right. God gave them knowledge, and with that knowledge they composed the Vedas.
A. ~ No, you should not take it in this sense. God gave them knowledge in the shape of the Vedas.
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Q.- Was that God's knowledge or was it theirs?
A. ~ God's no doubt.
Q. - Then who composed the Vedas, God or they?
A. ~ God because He is the real author of the Vedas, they being His own knowledge.
[We have introduced the objection that the Vedas were composed by them i.e., Agni, etc., for making the argument convincing].
Q. - Is God just or is He partial?
A. ~ He is just.
Q. - Why then did He reveal the Vedas to the minds of four men only and why not to the minds of all?
A. ~ This does not make God partial in the least. On the contrary, it brings into clear light the justice of a just God. Justice means to award one fruits according to one's actions. The (four rishis, Agni, etc.,) possessed
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previous merit and it was but proper that the Vedas should have been revealed to their minds.
Q. - But they were born in the beginning of creation, whence did they get previous merit?
A. ~ All Jivas (great souls) are without a beginning in their nature; and their actions and this great effect - the universe (with and without spherical bodies) also, are without a beginning. They are like the members of a series which has not beginning and which flows on continually. We shall adduce proofs in support of their having no beginning later on.
Q. - Were the meters - the Gayatri (mantras) and others also composed by God?
A. ~ Whence arose this doubt? God know all the sciences and He has, therefore, knowledge requisite for composing the meters - the Gayatri and others. This doubt is consequently groundless.
Q. - Does not the tradition say that the Vedas were composed by the four-faced Brahma?
A. ~ Don't say so. Tradition is included in the proof called 'oral testimony' which has
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been defined by Gotamacharya in the Nyaya Shastra I:7, as the saying of a trustworthy person (Apta). The commentary of Vatsyayana on the above aphorism is to the following effect. "An Apta is he who has realized the truth (about a thing) and who, actuated by a desire to instruct others, represents to them the facts exactly as they have fallen under his own observation. Apti is the realization of truth about a thing and a person who possesses it is called an Apta.
That tradition alone is, therefore, authoritative which is true and not that which is false. Consequently, that tradition is Aitihya and worthy of acceptance which stands the tests of truth and is the saying of a trustworthy person and not that which is false and (unworthy of credit) like the ravings of a mad man.
The saying that the Vedas were composed by Vyasa or the Rishis is also false. The modern Puranas and the Tantric books (which contain such stories) are worthless and of no use whatever.
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Q. - Why can it not be the case that the Mantras and Suktas were composed by the Rishis whose names are written over them?
A. ~ Do not say so, because Brahma and others themselves studied the Vedas and learnt them from others. There is a passage in the Shvetashvataropanishad 6:18., which says: 'He (God) who first creates Brahman and then gives the Vedas to him!' Manu also bear testimony to the fact that the Vedas were known to Brahma when the Rishis had not been even born. For, says Manu in 1:13 'for the purpose of the success of the Yajna He (God) milked (caused to be revealed) from Agni, Vayu, Ravi the three eternal Vedas, the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, and the Samveda',
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and again in 2:153: 'Kavi, the young son of Angiras, taught his fathers (elders)'. Brahma himself learnt the Vedas from Agni, etc. what then should we say of Vyasa and others?
Q. - Why are the Rik and the others Samhitas given two names, viz., Vedas and Shruti?
A. ~ Because each of these names connotes qualities. The world 'Veda' is formed by adding the suffix 'ghan' to t he roots 'vida' to know, 'Vida' to exist, 'Vidalri' to get, obtain and 'Vida' to think, in accordance with the rule 'halashcaha' in the instrumental ad locative (Karaka) noun-relations.
Similarly the word 'Shruti' is formed by adding the suffix 'ktin' to the root 'Shru' to hear in the instrumental noun-relation. The Samhitas are called Veda because all men know all true sciences in or through them, or because all true sciences exist in them, or because all true sciences exist in them, or because men become learned by studying them. The Samhitas are called
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'Shruti' because from the beginning of creation to the present day Brahma and others have heard all true sciences read out of them. The Vedas having been revealed by God who has no bodily organs, no one ever saw them being composed by a being having a corporeal body. God used Agni, Vayu, Aditya and Angirasa as His instruments only for revealing the Vedas.
The Vedas are not the products of their minds. God being possessed of perfect knowledge the relations between the Vedic words and their meanings also were established by Him.
It is, therefore, established that God revealed the Vedas through Agni, Vayu, Aditya and Angirasa who were Jivas in human bodies.
Age of creation
Q. - How many years have elapsed since the revelation of the Vedas?
A. ~ 1,960,852,976 years and the current year is the 1,960,852,977th. The same number of years has elapsed since the creation in the present Kalpa.
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Q. - How do you know that only so many years have elapsed and not more.?
A. ~ Because in the present creation it is the seventh manvantra called vaivasvata which is now running, six manvantaras having run their course before it. The names of these seven manvantaras are Svayambhava, Svarochisha, Auttanmi, Tamasa, Raivata, Chakshusha And Vaivasvata. These together with the seven, the savarni, etc., that are yet to come, make fourteen manvantaras.
The length of a Manavantara is 71 Chaturyugis (4 yugas). One thousand Chaturyugis have to run their course to make a day of Brahma. The duration of the night of Brahma also is the same. The time during which a cosmos lasts is called the day and the time occupied by dissolution is named the night.
In the present day of Brahma six manvantaras have already rolled by the and the 28th Kaliyuga is running in the 7th ilel, the present manvantara called Vaivasvata. Of this Kaliyuga also 4796 years have already passed and the present year is the 4797th, which the Aryas call the Samvat 1933 (1876 A.D.) of King Vikrama's reign. We quote Manu in our report,
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'But hear now the brief description of the duration of a night and day of Brahma and of the several ages (of the world) according to their order.
'They declare that the Krita age (consists of ) 4,000 years (of the Devas): the twilight preceding it consists of as many hundreds and the twilight following it of the same number.
' In the other three ages (the Treta, the Dvapara, and the Kali) wit their preceding and following twilights, the thousands and the hundreds are diminished by one in each.
'These 12,000 years which thus have been just enumerated as the total of 4 (human) ages are called one age of the Devas.
"But know that the sum of 1,000 years of the Devas makes one day of Brahma and that his night has the same length.
'Those only who know that he holy day of Brahma indeed ends after the completion of 1,000 ages of the Devas and that his night lasts
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as long, are really men acquainted with the length of days and nights.
' the before-mentioned age of the Devas or 12,000 (of their years) being multiplied by 71 (constitutes what) is here named the period of a Manu-Manavantara.'
the Manvantaras, the creations and the destructions (of the world) are numberless.
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sportings, as it were, of Parameshthin (God) who repeats this again and again!
The terms, 'Day of Brahma, Night of Brahma, etc.,' being of easy comprehension have been adopted for measuring time, so that it may be easy to calculate the age of the creation and the dissolution of the world and also of the Vedic revelation. A Manvantara is so called because on the change of amanvantara some modifications occur in the external arrangements of creation. The system of numeration to be followed in counting the years should be the following, as given in the Surya Siddhanata viz.,
'Eka = 1, dasha = 10, shata = 100, sahasra = 1,000, ayuta = 10,000, laksha = 100,000, niyuta = 1,000,000, koti = 10,000,000, arbuda = 100,000,000, vrinda = 1,000,000,000, kharva = 10,000,000, 000,
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nikharva = 100,000,000,000, Shankha - 1,000,000,0000, 000, padma = 10, 000, 000, 000, 000, sagara = 100,000,000,000,000, antya = 1,000,000,000,000,000, Madhya = 10,000,000,000,000,000, parardhya = 100,000,000,000,000,000,, and so on multiplying by 10 in succession.
According to the Shatpatha 7:5, 2, 13. the word "Sahasra' means "Sarva' (all). It says: 'Sahasra' means Sarva; thou art the giver of 'Sarva', and the Yajurveda 15:65 says: O God thou art the measurer of Sahasra, the reckoner of Sahasra.' Thus 'Sarva' means the universe as well as time because this Mantra occurs, in a general sense and its meaning is that God is the measurer of the universe, 'Brahmanda' whose periods of
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existence and dissolution, (technically called) Day and Night, consist of 1000, Mahayugas (aeons) each.
Works astronomical science lay down daily observances. The Aryas have clearly reckon even to-day, according to the rules of arithmetic, the divisions of time from a Kshana (= 4/5ths of a second) up to the Kalpa and the Kalpana and they pronounce them daily and are familiar with them.
All men, should, therefore, accept this firmly established doctrine (of the age of the world and the Vedic revelation). They should accept none else. It has been embodied in formula which is as follows: Om tat sat! I did this in the second quarter of the day of Brahma, in the first quarter of the 28th Kaliyuga of Vaivasavata Manvantra, in such and such year, Solstice, season, month and fortnight (Paksha), on such and such day when the moon occupies or occupied such and such mansion NAJYATR zodiacal sign and at such
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an hour.* This formula is a matter of everyday knowledge to every Arya, young or old, and it is prevalent in the whole of Aryavarta in an identical form. It is, therefore, not possible for any man to disturb it.
We shall explain the Yugas further at a later stage, qui vid.
From these observations it is evident that the opinion of European Profs. Max Muller, Wilson, etc., that the Vedas are of human and not of divine origin, as well as, their verdict that the Vedas were compose 2,400, 2,900, 3,000 or 3,100 years ago is rooted in error. The like views of those writers, who have written Vedic commentaries in the vernaculars ar also erroneous.
The Rigveda, the YajurVeda, the Samaveda and the Atharveda were produced by the
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Supreme and perfect Being, Parabrahman, who possesses the attributes of self-existence, consciousness and bliss, who is Omnipotent and universally adored. The meaning is that the four Vedas were revealed by God alone.
[The word 'sarvahuta' can also be taken as an adjective qualifying the Vedas because they also are worthy of acceptance to all].
"(Tasmat) from (sarvahutah) the universally adored Being the (Yajna) Vishnu - the all-pervading were produced the Riks and the Samans. (Tasmat) from Him (jajnire) were produced (Chhandansi) the Atharvaveda (tasmat) from Him (ajayata) was produced (Yajus) the Yajurveda (Tr) The Yajur Veda.
In the mantra the verbs 'Jagnire' and 'Ajayata' both meaning 'produced' are used to show that the Vedas contain numerous sciences. *
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Similarly the pronoun 'tasmat' (from him) is used twice for the purpose of laying stress on the fact that God alone is the author of the Vedas.
The Vedas contain various meters - Gayatri, etc., but notwithstanding this, the word chhandansi meters - is used to indicate that the Atharvaveda also was revealed by God.
The word 'Yajna' means 'Vishnu' according to Shatapatha I:1:1. (Yasho vai Vishnu) where it is said 'verily Vishnu is Yajna.' Now Vishnu means God. See Yajurveda V:15 (Edam Vishnu virchakrame tredadhe padam). The attribute of creating the universe can be applicable to God alone.
[He is called Vishnu because He pervades the animate and the inanimate world].
Tell me who is that Divine Being, the Almighty and Supreme Brahman by whom was produced the Rigveda, by whom was brought to light the Yajurveda and by whom were made the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda; or metaphorically,
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who is He whose mouth - the foremost par - is the Atharvaveda; the hair, the Samaveda; the heart, the Yajurveda and the breath, the Rigveda? This a question. The answer to it is: know thou that that Being is the Skambha - the all sustaining God.
The meaning is that no other Deva than the all-sustaining God is the author of the Vedas. Yajnavalkya addressing Maitreyi! The four Vedas - Rik and others - came out of God who transcends even space easily and naturally like the breath. As the breath comes out of the body and is again taken into it, so the Vedas revealed by God and are again withdrawn (at the time of dissolution).
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Some might here object; How could the Vedas, consisting as they do of words, be produced by God who has no bodily organs? Our reply to this is that such an objection can not raise in connection with the Almighty.
He has always the power of acting without the help of such instruments as the mouth, the breath, etc. Besides this, as at the time of thinking we pronounce words, ask and answer questions mentally so we may believe that the same is true of God also. Verily the almighty can never require the help of any body or thing in His work.
It is true, we cannot do anything without aids and helps, but such is not the case with God. When the incorporeal God has fashioned the entire cosmos what objection can possibly be raised to his having made the Vedas? God had created extremely wonderful objects in the world, whose composition is as fine as that of the Vedas.
(The objector may retort that the analogy is not true) because in the case of the creation of the world no one except God could have done it, but in the case of the composition of the Vedas men might have had the power to compose.
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Them just as they got the power to write other books. As to this we have to ob serve that men have been able to write books after studying the Vedas of Divine authorship and not otherwise. Even now we see that no one can become learned without self-study and receiving instruction from others.
Men acquire knowledge by reading books, receiving oral instruction from others and observing the course of events. Suppose you were able to keep a human child up to his death in a lonely place, taking care, of course, to provide him with food, drink, etc., but never holding the slightest intercourse with him by means of speech, etc. Now as that child would not acquire the smallest knowledge worth the name and as the wild dwellers of the great forests behave like beasts until they receive instruction others, so men too, would have continued to behave like beasts from the beginning of creation to the present day if they had not received instruction through the Vedas. What to say then of their composing books?
The objector might further say that our position was untenable because God has given man innate knowledge which was superior to
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all book-learning and without which even the knowledge of the revelation of Vedic words and their meanings would have been impossible to acquire. Men would write books by improving that knowledge and it was not necessary to believe in the Divine authorship of the Vedas.
Having arrived at this point we ask:-
Did not God give this innate knowledge to the child who was kept in a solitary place without receiving any instruction, as described above, or to the dwellers of the great forests?
Also how is it that we do not become learned with out receiving instruction from others and without studying the Vedas? It is, therefore, proved that mere innate knowledge is of little avail to man without instruction and study.
As men write books after learning many things from their teachers and by studying the works of the learned and by associating with them so all men have ultimately to depend on Divine knowledge.
Now, in the beginning of creation there was no system to teaching and learning, nor was there any book to read; consequently, it was not possible for any man to have acquired knowledge without receiving instructions
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from God. Men not being independent in the matter of empirical knowledge and innate knowledge alone being insufficient for the acquisition of knowledge in general, how could men have written books (without extraneous help)?
The position that innate knowledge is self-sufficient is absurd, because like the eye it falls under the category of instruments. As the eye is unable to do anything without the co-operation of the mind so innate knowledge also cannot accomplish anything without the help of Divine knowledge and the learning of learned men.
The question, 'what was God's object in revealing the Vedas - should be met by the counter question, 'what could be His object in not revealing them? To this the objector can only say: 'No one know how to answer this question.' We shall now describe God's object in revealing the Vedas.
Q. - Is God's knowledge infinite or is it not?
>A. ~ It is.
Q. - Of what use is it to Him?
A. ~ It is for His own benefit.
Q. - But, does not God do good to others?
A. ~ He does, but what of that?
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This shows that knowledge has for its object the interests of self as well as of others. If God were not to employ His knowledge for our instruction it would become useless in one respect. By employing His knowledge in the shape of the Vedas for the instructional purposes He only rendered it useful for others.
God is most merciful like a father. As a father always show kindness to his children so did God in His great mercy reveal the Vedas for the benefit of all men. If He had done so gross ignorance would have been perpetuated and men could not have achieved righteousness, worldly prosperity, enjoyment and emancipation and would have been deprived of the highest bliss.
When the most merciful God created bulbous roots, fruits and herbs, etc., for the good of His creatures, why should He not have revealed the Vedic knowledge which brings to light all kinds of happiness and contains all sciences.
The pleasure one experiences in enjoying the best things of the world does not equal the one thousandth part of the pleasure one feels after acquiring knowledge.
It is, therefore, certain that the Vedas were revealed by God.
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Q. - Whence did God get the writing materials such as a pen, ink, paper, etc., for writing the books of the Vedas?
A. ~ Ha! Ha! This is, indeed, a formidable objection, you have made. As God created the world without the help of bodily organs, the hands, the feet, etc., and without the aid of such materials as wood, clay, etc., so He made the Vedas also. You do not raise such a doubt in connection with the composition of the Vedas by God Almighty. He did not, however, produce the Vedas in the form of books in the beginning.
Q. - In what form then (did He produce them)?
A. ~ He revealed them to the consciousness of Agni, Vayu, Aditya and Angirasa.
Q.- But they (fire, air, sun, light) are inanimate objects devoid of consciousness?
A. ~ No, they were human beings in human bodies in the beginning of creation. No inanimate object can be capable of doing an intellectual act. When it is not possible to
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take word in its literal sense, it is taken in its indirect or secondary sense, e.g., if a trustworthy gentleman were to tell another that the bedsteads were shouting then others would understand that men sitting on the bedsteads were shouting.
The same course should be adopted here also (i.e., in taking Agni, Vayu, Aditya and Angirasa as names of human beings and not as names of inanimate objects, fire, air, sun and light); for, the light of knowledge can shine in man alone. On this point there is the authority of the Shatapatha XI. 5-8-3 where it is said that from them, when they meditated, were produced the three Vedas, viz., from Agni was produced the Rigveda, from Vayu, the Yajurveda, and from Surya the Samaveda. God inspired their consciousness and produced the Vedas through them.
Q.- That's all right. God gave them knowledge, and with that knowledge they composed the Vedas.
A. ~ No, you should not take it in this sense. God gave them knowledge in the shape of the Vedas.
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Q.- Was that God's knowledge or was it theirs?
A. ~ God's no doubt.
Q. - Then who composed the Vedas, God or they?
A. ~ God because He is the real author of the Vedas, they being His own knowledge.
[We have introduced the objection that the Vedas were composed by them i.e., Agni, etc., for making the argument convincing].
Q. - Is God just or is He partial?
A. ~ He is just.
Q. - Why then did He reveal the Vedas to the minds of four men only and why not to the minds of all?
A. ~ This does not make God partial in the least. On the contrary, it brings into clear light the justice of a just God. Justice means to award one fruits according to one's actions. The (four rishis, Agni, etc.,) possessed
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previous merit and it was but proper that the Vedas should have been revealed to their minds.
Q. - But they were born in the beginning of creation, whence did they get previous merit?
A. ~ All Jivas (great souls) are without a beginning in their nature; and their actions and this great effect - the universe (with and without spherical bodies) also, are without a beginning. They are like the members of a series which has not beginning and which flows on continually. We shall adduce proofs in support of their having no beginning later on.
Q. - Were the meters - the Gayatri (mantras) and others also composed by God?
A. ~ Whence arose this doubt? God know all the sciences and He has, therefore, knowledge requisite for composing the meters - the Gayatri and others. This doubt is consequently groundless.
Q. - Does not the tradition say that the Vedas were composed by the four-faced Brahma?
A. ~ Don't say so. Tradition is included in the proof called 'oral testimony' which has
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been defined by Gotamacharya in the Nyaya Shastra I:7, as the saying of a trustworthy person (Apta). The commentary of Vatsyayana on the above aphorism is to the following effect. "An Apta is he who has realized the truth (about a thing) and who, actuated by a desire to instruct others, represents to them the facts exactly as they have fallen under his own observation. Apti is the realization of truth about a thing and a person who possesses it is called an Apta.
That tradition alone is, therefore, authoritative which is true and not that which is false. Consequently, that tradition is Aitihya and worthy of acceptance which stands the tests of truth and is the saying of a trustworthy person and not that which is false and (unworthy of credit) like the ravings of a mad man.
The saying that the Vedas were composed by Vyasa or the Rishis is also false. The modern Puranas and the Tantric books (which contain such stories) are worthless and of no use whatever.
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Q. - Why can it not be the case that the Mantras and Suktas were composed by the Rishis whose names are written over them?
A. ~ Do not say so, because Brahma and others themselves studied the Vedas and learnt them from others. There is a passage in the Shvetashvataropanishad 6:18., which says: 'He (God) who first creates Brahman and then gives the Vedas to him!' Manu also bear testimony to the fact that the Vedas were known to Brahma when the Rishis had not been even born. For, says Manu in 1:13 'for the purpose of the success of the Yajna He (God) milked (caused to be revealed) from Agni, Vayu, Ravi the three eternal Vedas, the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, and the Samveda',
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and again in 2:153: 'Kavi, the young son of Angiras, taught his fathers (elders)'. Brahma himself learnt the Vedas from Agni, etc. what then should we say of Vyasa and others?
Q. - Why are the Rik and the others Samhitas given two names, viz., Vedas and Shruti?
A. ~ Because each of these names connotes qualities. The world 'Veda' is formed by adding the suffix 'ghan' to t he roots 'vida' to know, 'Vida' to exist, 'Vidalri' to get, obtain and 'Vida' to think, in accordance with the rule 'halashcaha' in the instrumental ad locative (Karaka) noun-relations.
Similarly the word 'Shruti' is formed by adding the suffix 'ktin' to the root 'Shru' to hear in the instrumental noun-relation. The Samhitas are called Veda because all men know all true sciences in or through them, or because all true sciences exist in them, or because all true sciences exist in them, or because men become learned by studying them. The Samhitas are called
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'Shruti' because from the beginning of creation to the present day Brahma and others have heard all true sciences read out of them. The Vedas having been revealed by God who has no bodily organs, no one ever saw them being composed by a being having a corporeal body. God used Agni, Vayu, Aditya and Angirasa as His instruments only for revealing the Vedas.
The Vedas are not the products of their minds. God being possessed of perfect knowledge the relations between the Vedic words and their meanings also were established by Him.
It is, therefore, established that God revealed the Vedas through Agni, Vayu, Aditya and Angirasa who were Jivas in human bodies.
Age of creation
Q. - How many years have elapsed since the revelation of the Vedas?
A. ~ 1,960,852,976 years and the current year is the 1,960,852,977th. The same number of years has elapsed since the creation in the present Kalpa.
# Page 26
Q. - How do you know that only so many years have elapsed and not more.?
A. ~ Because in the present creation it is the seventh manvantra called vaivasvata which is now running, six manvantaras having run their course before it. The names of these seven manvantaras are Svayambhava, Svarochisha, Auttanmi, Tamasa, Raivata, Chakshusha And Vaivasvata. These together with the seven, the savarni, etc., that are yet to come, make fourteen manvantaras.
The length of a Manavantara is 71 Chaturyugis (4 yugas). One thousand Chaturyugis have to run their course to make a day of Brahma. The duration of the night of Brahma also is the same. The time during which a cosmos lasts is called the day and the time occupied by dissolution is named the night.
In the present day of Brahma six manvantaras have already rolled by the and the 28th Kaliyuga is running in the 7th ilel, the present manvantara called Vaivasvata. Of this Kaliyuga also 4796 years have already passed and the present year is the 4797th, which the Aryas call the Samvat 1933 (1876 A.D.) of King Vikrama's reign. We quote Manu in our report,
# Page27
'But hear now the brief description of the duration of a night and day of Brahma and of the several ages (of the world) according to their order.
'They declare that the Krita age (consists of ) 4,000 years (of the Devas): the twilight preceding it consists of as many hundreds and the twilight following it of the same number.
' In the other three ages (the Treta, the Dvapara, and the Kali) wit their preceding and following twilights, the thousands and the hundreds are diminished by one in each.
'These 12,000 years which thus have been just enumerated as the total of 4 (human) ages are called one age of the Devas.
"But know that the sum of 1,000 years of the Devas makes one day of Brahma and that his night has the same length.
'Those only who know that he holy day of Brahma indeed ends after the completion of 1,000 ages of the Devas and that his night lasts
# Page 28
as long, are really men acquainted with the length of days and nights.
' the before-mentioned age of the Devas or 12,000 (of their years) being multiplied by 71 (constitutes what) is here named the period of a Manu-Manavantara.'
the Manvantaras, the creations and the destructions (of the world) are numberless.
# Page 29
sportings, as it were, of Parameshthin (God) who repeats this again and again!
The terms, 'Day of Brahma, Night of Brahma, etc.,' being of easy comprehension have been adopted for measuring time, so that it may be easy to calculate the age of the creation and the dissolution of the world and also of the Vedic revelation. A Manvantara is so called because on the change of amanvantara some modifications occur in the external arrangements of creation. The system of numeration to be followed in counting the years should be the following, as given in the Surya Siddhanata viz.,
'Eka = 1, dasha = 10, shata = 100, sahasra = 1,000, ayuta = 10,000, laksha = 100,000, niyuta = 1,000,000, koti = 10,000,000, arbuda = 100,000,000, vrinda = 1,000,000,000, kharva = 10,000,000, 000,
# Page 30
nikharva = 100,000,000,000, Shankha - 1,000,000,0000, 000, padma = 10, 000, 000, 000, 000, sagara = 100,000,000,000,000, antya = 1,000,000,000,000,000, Madhya = 10,000,000,000,000,000, parardhya = 100,000,000,000,000,000,, and so on multiplying by 10 in succession.
According to the Shatpatha 7:5, 2, 13. the word "Sahasra' means "Sarva' (all). It says: 'Sahasra' means Sarva; thou art the giver of 'Sarva', and the Yajurveda 15:65 says: O God thou art the measurer of Sahasra, the reckoner of Sahasra.' Thus 'Sarva' means the universe as well as time because this Mantra occurs, in a general sense and its meaning is that God is the measurer of the universe, 'Brahmanda' whose periods of
# Page 31
existence and dissolution, (technically called) Day and Night, consist of 1000, Mahayugas (aeons) each.
Works astronomical science lay down daily observances. The Aryas have clearly reckon even to-day, according to the rules of arithmetic, the divisions of time from a Kshana (= 4/5ths of a second) up to the Kalpa and the Kalpana and they pronounce them daily and are familiar with them.
All men, should, therefore, accept this firmly established doctrine (of the age of the world and the Vedic revelation). They should accept none else. It has been embodied in formula which is as follows: Om tat sat! I did this in the second quarter of the day of Brahma, in the first quarter of the 28th Kaliyuga of Vaivasavata Manvantra, in such and such year, Solstice, season, month and fortnight (Paksha), on such and such day when the moon occupies or occupied such and such mansion NAJYATR zodiacal sign and at such
# Page 32
an hour.* This formula is a matter of everyday knowledge to every Arya, young or old, and it is prevalent in the whole of Aryavarta in an identical form. It is, therefore, not possible for any man to disturb it.
We shall explain the Yugas further at a later stage, qui vid.
From these observations it is evident that the opinion of European Profs. Max Muller, Wilson, etc., that the Vedas are of human and not of divine origin, as well as, their verdict that the Vedas were compose 2,400, 2,900, 3,000 or 3,100 years ago is rooted in error. The like views of those writers, who have written Vedic commentaries in the vernaculars ar also erroneous.
Friday, April 4, 2008
Big Bang Theory
INTRODUCTION
We certainly know that our universe exists, however, this knowledge alone has not satisfied mankind's quest for further understanding. Our curiosity has led us to question our place in this universe and furthermore, the place of the universe itself. Throughout time we have asked ourselves these questions: How did our universe begin? How old is our universe? How did matter come to exist? Obviously, these are not simple quesPublish Posttions and throughout our brief history on this planet much time and effort has been spent looking for some clue. Yet, after all this energy has been expended, much of what we know is still only speculation.
We have, however, come a long way from the mystical beginnings of the study of cosmology and the origins of the universe. Through the understandings of modern science we have been able to provide firm theories for some of the answers we once called hypotheses. True to the nature of science, a majority of these answers have only led to more intriguing and complex questions. It seems to be inherent in our search for knowledge that questions will always continue to exist.
Although in this short chapter it will be impossible to tackle all of the questions concerning the creation of everything we know as reality, an attempt will be made to address certain fundamental questions of our being. It will be important to keep in mind that all of this information is constantly being questioned and reevaluated in order to understand the universe more clearly. For our purposes, through an examination of what is known about the Big Bang itself, the age of the universe, and the synthesis of the first atoms, we believe that we can begin to answer several of these key questions.
THE BIG BANG
One of the most persistently asked questions has been: How was the universe created? Many once believed that the universe had no beginning or end and was truly infinite. Through the inception of the Big Bang theory, however,no longer could the universe be considered infinite. The universe was forced to take on the properties of a finite phenomenon, possessing a history and a beginning.
About 15 billion years ago a tremendous explosion started the expansion of the universe. This explosion is known as the Big Bang. At the point of this event all of the matter and energy of space was contained at one point. What exisisted prior to this event is completely unknown and is a matter of pure speculation. This occurance was not a conventional explosion but rather an event filling all of space with all of the particles of the embryonic universe rushing away from each other. The Big Bang actually consisted of an explosion of space within itself unlike an explosion of a bomb were fragments are thrown outward. The galaxies were not all clumped together, but rather the Big Bang lay the foundations for the universe.
The origin of the Big Bang theory can be credited to Edwin Hubble. Hubble made the observation that the universe is continuously expanding. He discovered that a galaxys velocity is proportional to its distance. Galaxies that are twice as far from us move twice as fast. Another consequence is that the universe is expanding in every direction. This observation means that it has taken every galaxy the same amount of time to move from a common starting position to its current position. Just as the Big Bang provided for the foundation of the universe, Hubbles observations provided for the foundation of the Big Bang theory.
Since the Big Bang, the universe has been continuously expanding and, thus, there has been more and more distance between clusters of galaxies. This phenomenon of galaxies moving farther away from each other is known as the red shift. As light from distant galaxies approach earth there is an increase of space between earth and the galaxy, which leads to wavelengths being stretched.
In addition to the understanding of the velocity of galaxies emanating from a single point, there is further evidence for the Big Bang. In 1964, two astronomers, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, in an attempt to detect microwaves from outer space, inadvertently discovered a noise of extraterrestrial origin. The noise did not seem to emanate from one location but instead, it came from all directions at once. It became obvious that what they heard was radiation from the farthest reaches of the universe which had been left over from the Big Bang. This discovery of the radioactive aftermath of the initial explosion lent much credence to the Big Bang theory.
Even more recently, NASAs COBE satellite was able to detect cosmic microwaves eminating from the outer reaches of the universe. These microwaves were remarkably uniform which illustrated the homogenity of the early stages of the universe. However, the satillite also discovered that as the universe began to cool and was still expanding, small fluctuations began to exist due to temperature differences. These flucuatuations verified prior calculations of the possible cooling and development of the universe just fractions of a second after its creation. These fluctuations in the universe provided a more detailed description of the first moments after the Big Bang. They also helped to tell the story of the formation of galaxies which will be discussed in the next chapter.
The Big Bang theory provides a viable solution to one of the most pressing questions of all time. It is important to understand, however, that the theory itself is constantly being revised. As more observations are made and more research conducted, the Big Bang theory becomes more complete and our knowledge of the origins of the universe more substantial.
THE FIRST ATOMS
Now that an attempt has been made to grapple with the theory of the Big Bang, the next logical question to ask would be what happened afterward? In the minuscule fractions of the first second after creation what was once a complete vacuum began to evolve into what we now know as the universe. In the very beginning there was nothing except for a plasma soup. What is known of these brief moments in time, at the start of our study of cosmology, is largely conjectural. However, science has devised some sketch of what probably happened, based on what is known about the universe today.
Immediately after the Big Bang, as one might imagine, the universe was tremendously hot as a result of particles of both matter and antimatter rushing apart in all directions. As it began to cool, at around 10^-43 seconds after creation, there existed an almost equal yet asymmetrical amount of matter and antimatter. As these two materials are created together, they collide and destroy one another creating pure energy. Fortunately for us, there was an asymmetry in favor of matter. As a direct result of an excess of about one part per billion, the universe was able to mature in a way favorable for matter to persist. As the universe first began to expand, this discrepancy grew larger. The particles which began to dominate were those of matter. They were created and they decayed without the accompaniment of an equal creation or decay of an antiparticle.
As the universe expanded further, and thus cooled, common particles began to form. These particles are called baryons and include photons, neutrinos, electrons and quarks would become the building blocks of matter and life as we know it. During the baryon genesis period there were no recognizable heavy particles such as protons or neutrons because of the still intense heat. At this moment, there was only a quark soup. As the universe began to cool and expand even more, we begin to understand more clearly what exactly happened.
After the universe had cooled to about 3000 billion degrees Kelvin, a radical transition began which has been likened to the phase transition of water turning to ice. Composite particles such as protons and neutrons, called hadrons, became the common state of matter after this transition. Still, no matter more complex could form at these temperatures. Although lighter particles, called leptons, also existed, they were prohibited from reacting with the hadrons to form more complex states of matter. These leptons, which include electrons, neutrinos and photons, would soon be able to join their hadron kin in a union that would define present-day common matter.
After about one to three minutes had passed since the creation of the universe, protons and neutrons began to react with each other to form deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen. Deuterium, or heavy hydrogen, soon collected another neutron to form tritium. Rapidly following this reaction was the addition of another proton which produced a helium nucleus. Scientists believe that there was one helium nucleus for every ten protons within the first three minutes of the universe. After further cooling, these excess protons would be able to capture an electron to create common hydrogen. Consequently, the universe today is observed to contain one helium atom for every ten or eleven atoms of hydrogen.
While it is true that much of this information is speculative, as the universe ages we are able to become increasingly confident in our knowledge of its history. By studying the way in which the universe exists today it is possible to learn a great deal about its past. Much effort has gone into understanding the formation and number of baryons present today. Through finding answers to these modern questions, it is possible to trace their role in the universe back to the Big Bang. Subsequently, by studying the formation of simple atoms in the laboratory we can make some educated guesses as to how they formed originally. Only through further research and discovery will it be possible to completely understand the creation of the universe and its first atomic structures, however, maybe we will never know for sure.
AGE OF THE UNIVERSE
We now have something of a handle on two of the most important quandaries concerning the universe; however, one major question remains. If the universe is indeed finite, how long has it been in existence? Again, science has been able to expand upon what it knows about the universe today and extrapolate a theory as to its age. By applying the common physical equation of distance over velocity equaling time, which again uses Hubbles observations, a fairly accurate approximation can be made.
The two primary measurements needed are the distance of a galaxy moving away from us and that galaxys red shift. An unsuccessful first attempt was made to find these distances through trigonometry. Scientists were able to calculate the diameter of the Earths orbit around the sun which was augmented through the calculation of the Suns motion through our own galaxy. Unfortunately, this calculation could not be used alone to determine the enormous distance between our galaxy and those which would enable us to estimate the age of the universe because of the significant errors involved.
The next step was an understanding of the pulsation of stars. It had been observed that stars of the same luminosity blinked at the same rate, much like a lighthouse could work where all lighthouses with 150,000 watt light bulbs would rotate every thirty seconds and those with 250,000 watt light bulbs would rotate every minute. With this knowledge, scientists assumed that stars in our galaxy that blinked at the same rate as stars in distant galaxies must have the same intensity. Using trigonometry, they were able to calculate the distance to the star in our galaxy. Therefore, the distance of the distant star could be calculated by studying the difference in their intensities much like determining the distance of two cars in the night. Assuming the two cars headights had the same intensity, it would be possible to infer that the car whose headlights appeared dimmer was farther away from the observer than the other car whose headlights would seem brighter. Again, this theory could not be used alone to calculate distance of the most far-away galaxies. After a certain distance it becomes impossible to distinguish individual stars from the galaxies in which they exist. Because of the large red shifts in these galaxies a method had to be devised to find distance using entire galaxy clusters rather than stars alone.
By studying the sizes of galaxy cluster that are near to us, scientists can gain an idea of what the sizes of other clusters might be. Consequently, a prediction can be made about their distance from the Milky Way much in the same way the distance of stars was learned. Though a calculation involving the supposed distance of the far-off cluster and its red shift, a final estimation can be made as to how long the galaxy has been moving away from us. In turn, this number can be used inversely to turn back the clock to a point when the two galaxies were in the same place at the same time, or, the moment of the Big Bang. The equation generally used to show the age of the universe is shown here:
(distance of a particular galaxy) / (that galaxys velocity) = (time)
or
4.6 x 10^26 cm / 1 x 10^9 cm/sec = 4.6 x 10^17 sec
This equation, equaling 4.6 x 10^17 seconds, comes out to be approximately fifteen billion years. This calculation is almost exactly the same for every galaxy that can be studied. However, because of the uncertainties of the measurements produced by these equations, only a rough estimate of the true age of the universe can be fashioned. While finding the age of the universe is a complicated process, the achievement of this knowledge represents a critical step in our understanding.
NOW WHAT?
In summary, we have made a first attempt at explaining the answers that science has revealed about our universe. Our understanding of the Big Bang, the first atoms and the age of the universe is obviously incomplete. As time wears on, more discoveries are made, leading to infinite questions which require yet more answers. Unsatisfied with our base of knowledge research is being conducted around the world at this very moment to further our minimal understanding of the unimaginably complex universe.
Since its conception, the theory of the Big Bang has been constantly challenged. These challenges have led those who believe in the theory to search for more concrete evidence which would prove them correct. From the point at which this chapter leaves off, many have tried to go further and several discoveries have been made that paint a more complete picture of the creation of the universe.
Recently, NASA has made some astounding discoveries which lend themselves to the proof of the Big Bang theory. Most importantly, astronomers using the Astro-2 observatory were able to confirm one of the requirements for the foundation of the universe through the Big Bang. In June, 1995, scientists were able to detect primordial helium, such as deuterium, in the far reaches of the universe. These findings are consistent with an important aspect of the Big Bang theory that a mixture of hydrogen and helium was created at the beginning of the universe.
In addition, the Hubble telescope, named after the father of Big Bang theory, has provided certain clues as to what elements were present following creation. Astronomers using Hubble have found the element boron in extremely ancient stars. They postulate that its presence could be either a remnant of energetic events at the birth of galaxies or it could indicate that boron is even older, dating back to the Big Bang itself. If the latter is true, scientists will be forced once again to modify their theory for the birth of the universe and events immediately afterward because, according to the present theory, such a heavy and complex atom could not have existed.
In this manner we can see that the research will never be truly complete. Our hunger for knowledge will never be satiated. So to answer the question, what now, is an impossibility. The path we take from here will only be determined by our own discoveries and questions. We are engaged in a never-ending cycle of questions and answers where one will inevitably lead to the other.
We certainly know that our universe exists, however, this knowledge alone has not satisfied mankind's quest for further understanding. Our curiosity has led us to question our place in this universe and furthermore, the place of the universe itself. Throughout time we have asked ourselves these questions: How did our universe begin? How old is our universe? How did matter come to exist? Obviously, these are not simple quesPublish Posttions and throughout our brief history on this planet much time and effort has been spent looking for some clue. Yet, after all this energy has been expended, much of what we know is still only speculation.
We have, however, come a long way from the mystical beginnings of the study of cosmology and the origins of the universe. Through the understandings of modern science we have been able to provide firm theories for some of the answers we once called hypotheses. True to the nature of science, a majority of these answers have only led to more intriguing and complex questions. It seems to be inherent in our search for knowledge that questions will always continue to exist.
Although in this short chapter it will be impossible to tackle all of the questions concerning the creation of everything we know as reality, an attempt will be made to address certain fundamental questions of our being. It will be important to keep in mind that all of this information is constantly being questioned and reevaluated in order to understand the universe more clearly. For our purposes, through an examination of what is known about the Big Bang itself, the age of the universe, and the synthesis of the first atoms, we believe that we can begin to answer several of these key questions.
THE BIG BANG
One of the most persistently asked questions has been: How was the universe created? Many once believed that the universe had no beginning or end and was truly infinite. Through the inception of the Big Bang theory, however,no longer could the universe be considered infinite. The universe was forced to take on the properties of a finite phenomenon, possessing a history and a beginning.
About 15 billion years ago a tremendous explosion started the expansion of the universe. This explosion is known as the Big Bang. At the point of this event all of the matter and energy of space was contained at one point. What exisisted prior to this event is completely unknown and is a matter of pure speculation. This occurance was not a conventional explosion but rather an event filling all of space with all of the particles of the embryonic universe rushing away from each other. The Big Bang actually consisted of an explosion of space within itself unlike an explosion of a bomb were fragments are thrown outward. The galaxies were not all clumped together, but rather the Big Bang lay the foundations for the universe.
The origin of the Big Bang theory can be credited to Edwin Hubble. Hubble made the observation that the universe is continuously expanding. He discovered that a galaxys velocity is proportional to its distance. Galaxies that are twice as far from us move twice as fast. Another consequence is that the universe is expanding in every direction. This observation means that it has taken every galaxy the same amount of time to move from a common starting position to its current position. Just as the Big Bang provided for the foundation of the universe, Hubbles observations provided for the foundation of the Big Bang theory.
Since the Big Bang, the universe has been continuously expanding and, thus, there has been more and more distance between clusters of galaxies. This phenomenon of galaxies moving farther away from each other is known as the red shift. As light from distant galaxies approach earth there is an increase of space between earth and the galaxy, which leads to wavelengths being stretched.
In addition to the understanding of the velocity of galaxies emanating from a single point, there is further evidence for the Big Bang. In 1964, two astronomers, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, in an attempt to detect microwaves from outer space, inadvertently discovered a noise of extraterrestrial origin. The noise did not seem to emanate from one location but instead, it came from all directions at once. It became obvious that what they heard was radiation from the farthest reaches of the universe which had been left over from the Big Bang. This discovery of the radioactive aftermath of the initial explosion lent much credence to the Big Bang theory.
Even more recently, NASAs COBE satellite was able to detect cosmic microwaves eminating from the outer reaches of the universe. These microwaves were remarkably uniform which illustrated the homogenity of the early stages of the universe. However, the satillite also discovered that as the universe began to cool and was still expanding, small fluctuations began to exist due to temperature differences. These flucuatuations verified prior calculations of the possible cooling and development of the universe just fractions of a second after its creation. These fluctuations in the universe provided a more detailed description of the first moments after the Big Bang. They also helped to tell the story of the formation of galaxies which will be discussed in the next chapter.
The Big Bang theory provides a viable solution to one of the most pressing questions of all time. It is important to understand, however, that the theory itself is constantly being revised. As more observations are made and more research conducted, the Big Bang theory becomes more complete and our knowledge of the origins of the universe more substantial.
THE FIRST ATOMS
Now that an attempt has been made to grapple with the theory of the Big Bang, the next logical question to ask would be what happened afterward? In the minuscule fractions of the first second after creation what was once a complete vacuum began to evolve into what we now know as the universe. In the very beginning there was nothing except for a plasma soup. What is known of these brief moments in time, at the start of our study of cosmology, is largely conjectural. However, science has devised some sketch of what probably happened, based on what is known about the universe today.
Immediately after the Big Bang, as one might imagine, the universe was tremendously hot as a result of particles of both matter and antimatter rushing apart in all directions. As it began to cool, at around 10^-43 seconds after creation, there existed an almost equal yet asymmetrical amount of matter and antimatter. As these two materials are created together, they collide and destroy one another creating pure energy. Fortunately for us, there was an asymmetry in favor of matter. As a direct result of an excess of about one part per billion, the universe was able to mature in a way favorable for matter to persist. As the universe first began to expand, this discrepancy grew larger. The particles which began to dominate were those of matter. They were created and they decayed without the accompaniment of an equal creation or decay of an antiparticle.
As the universe expanded further, and thus cooled, common particles began to form. These particles are called baryons and include photons, neutrinos, electrons and quarks would become the building blocks of matter and life as we know it. During the baryon genesis period there were no recognizable heavy particles such as protons or neutrons because of the still intense heat. At this moment, there was only a quark soup. As the universe began to cool and expand even more, we begin to understand more clearly what exactly happened.
After the universe had cooled to about 3000 billion degrees Kelvin, a radical transition began which has been likened to the phase transition of water turning to ice. Composite particles such as protons and neutrons, called hadrons, became the common state of matter after this transition. Still, no matter more complex could form at these temperatures. Although lighter particles, called leptons, also existed, they were prohibited from reacting with the hadrons to form more complex states of matter. These leptons, which include electrons, neutrinos and photons, would soon be able to join their hadron kin in a union that would define present-day common matter.
After about one to three minutes had passed since the creation of the universe, protons and neutrons began to react with each other to form deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen. Deuterium, or heavy hydrogen, soon collected another neutron to form tritium. Rapidly following this reaction was the addition of another proton which produced a helium nucleus. Scientists believe that there was one helium nucleus for every ten protons within the first three minutes of the universe. After further cooling, these excess protons would be able to capture an electron to create common hydrogen. Consequently, the universe today is observed to contain one helium atom for every ten or eleven atoms of hydrogen.
While it is true that much of this information is speculative, as the universe ages we are able to become increasingly confident in our knowledge of its history. By studying the way in which the universe exists today it is possible to learn a great deal about its past. Much effort has gone into understanding the formation and number of baryons present today. Through finding answers to these modern questions, it is possible to trace their role in the universe back to the Big Bang. Subsequently, by studying the formation of simple atoms in the laboratory we can make some educated guesses as to how they formed originally. Only through further research and discovery will it be possible to completely understand the creation of the universe and its first atomic structures, however, maybe we will never know for sure.
AGE OF THE UNIVERSE
We now have something of a handle on two of the most important quandaries concerning the universe; however, one major question remains. If the universe is indeed finite, how long has it been in existence? Again, science has been able to expand upon what it knows about the universe today and extrapolate a theory as to its age. By applying the common physical equation of distance over velocity equaling time, which again uses Hubbles observations, a fairly accurate approximation can be made.
The two primary measurements needed are the distance of a galaxy moving away from us and that galaxys red shift. An unsuccessful first attempt was made to find these distances through trigonometry. Scientists were able to calculate the diameter of the Earths orbit around the sun which was augmented through the calculation of the Suns motion through our own galaxy. Unfortunately, this calculation could not be used alone to determine the enormous distance between our galaxy and those which would enable us to estimate the age of the universe because of the significant errors involved.
The next step was an understanding of the pulsation of stars. It had been observed that stars of the same luminosity blinked at the same rate, much like a lighthouse could work where all lighthouses with 150,000 watt light bulbs would rotate every thirty seconds and those with 250,000 watt light bulbs would rotate every minute. With this knowledge, scientists assumed that stars in our galaxy that blinked at the same rate as stars in distant galaxies must have the same intensity. Using trigonometry, they were able to calculate the distance to the star in our galaxy. Therefore, the distance of the distant star could be calculated by studying the difference in their intensities much like determining the distance of two cars in the night. Assuming the two cars headights had the same intensity, it would be possible to infer that the car whose headlights appeared dimmer was farther away from the observer than the other car whose headlights would seem brighter. Again, this theory could not be used alone to calculate distance of the most far-away galaxies. After a certain distance it becomes impossible to distinguish individual stars from the galaxies in which they exist. Because of the large red shifts in these galaxies a method had to be devised to find distance using entire galaxy clusters rather than stars alone.
By studying the sizes of galaxy cluster that are near to us, scientists can gain an idea of what the sizes of other clusters might be. Consequently, a prediction can be made about their distance from the Milky Way much in the same way the distance of stars was learned. Though a calculation involving the supposed distance of the far-off cluster and its red shift, a final estimation can be made as to how long the galaxy has been moving away from us. In turn, this number can be used inversely to turn back the clock to a point when the two galaxies were in the same place at the same time, or, the moment of the Big Bang. The equation generally used to show the age of the universe is shown here:
(distance of a particular galaxy) / (that galaxys velocity) = (time)
or
4.6 x 10^26 cm / 1 x 10^9 cm/sec = 4.6 x 10^17 sec
This equation, equaling 4.6 x 10^17 seconds, comes out to be approximately fifteen billion years. This calculation is almost exactly the same for every galaxy that can be studied. However, because of the uncertainties of the measurements produced by these equations, only a rough estimate of the true age of the universe can be fashioned. While finding the age of the universe is a complicated process, the achievement of this knowledge represents a critical step in our understanding.
NOW WHAT?
In summary, we have made a first attempt at explaining the answers that science has revealed about our universe. Our understanding of the Big Bang, the first atoms and the age of the universe is obviously incomplete. As time wears on, more discoveries are made, leading to infinite questions which require yet more answers. Unsatisfied with our base of knowledge research is being conducted around the world at this very moment to further our minimal understanding of the unimaginably complex universe.
Since its conception, the theory of the Big Bang has been constantly challenged. These challenges have led those who believe in the theory to search for more concrete evidence which would prove them correct. From the point at which this chapter leaves off, many have tried to go further and several discoveries have been made that paint a more complete picture of the creation of the universe.
Recently, NASA has made some astounding discoveries which lend themselves to the proof of the Big Bang theory. Most importantly, astronomers using the Astro-2 observatory were able to confirm one of the requirements for the foundation of the universe through the Big Bang. In June, 1995, scientists were able to detect primordial helium, such as deuterium, in the far reaches of the universe. These findings are consistent with an important aspect of the Big Bang theory that a mixture of hydrogen and helium was created at the beginning of the universe.
In addition, the Hubble telescope, named after the father of Big Bang theory, has provided certain clues as to what elements were present following creation. Astronomers using Hubble have found the element boron in extremely ancient stars. They postulate that its presence could be either a remnant of energetic events at the birth of galaxies or it could indicate that boron is even older, dating back to the Big Bang itself. If the latter is true, scientists will be forced once again to modify their theory for the birth of the universe and events immediately afterward because, according to the present theory, such a heavy and complex atom could not have existed.
In this manner we can see that the research will never be truly complete. Our hunger for knowledge will never be satiated. So to answer the question, what now, is an impossibility. The path we take from here will only be determined by our own discoveries and questions. We are engaged in a never-ending cycle of questions and answers where one will inevitably lead to the other.
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